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Carpal injuries

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Injuries to the hands are extremely common in children and are a frequent reason for their attending the ED. While common, their management can be limited by difficulties in proper assessment and a paucity of evidence to guide treatment. That said, documented outcomes remain typically excellent, so we must be doing something right! Generally, training is provided with an adult focus, and while some principles from adult trauma can be applied, it is not uniform.

As our post on radiographic findings demonstrates, children’s bones are different. This is significant because we know that missed injuries or delays in appropriate treatment can lead to long-term loss of function, further compounded by the science that children heal faster and, therefore, our window for intervention is considerably shorter. Therefore, accurate assessment, appropriate initial management, and timely referral if necessary, are essential.

As is not uncommon in the paediatric arena, evidence specific to this population is limited, although it is stated that carpal fractures in children are being increasingly reported. Perhaps this is as we, as clinicians, get better at diagnosis and radiologists, therefore, see more and so naturally become more adept at interpreting them. Regardless of radiographic findings, diagnosis is primarily through clinical examination. 

While not exclusive to the teenage population, we can expect most carpal injuries to occur in older children; as children age, they become braver and take on more activities with an increased likelihood of higher velocity falls. Falling onto an outstretched hand, otherwise widely known as a FOOSH injury, is a common mechanism, accounting for 30% of non-scaphoid carpal injuries.

Before we get into it, we can take a moment to re-familiarise ourselves with the bones of the hand and wrist.

The carpus

The carpal bones are the eight bones of the wrist that articulate the forearm with the hand – this seems confusing as they are quite clearly situated in what we call the hand but go with it. They are divided into the proximal and distal rows, collectively called the carpus. Proximally, we have scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform and distally, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate. The carpal bones develop through the course of childhood and should all be visible on X-ray by approximately eight years of age.

Literature suggests that carpal fractures account for around 8-19% of all hand injuries worldwide; as we’ve already touched on, the majority will be scaphoid fractures, and EDs are pretty used to dealing with these – they even get their own series of x-rays – for that reason, this post will give some time to carpal fractures NOT including the scaphoid.

What are we looking for on an X-ray?

While the AP view allows clear visualization of all of the carpal bones and would appear the ‘easier’ view, particularly to those less experienced with interpreting these x-rays, the lateral view is good for assessing the distal wrist, carpal bones and proximal metacarpals – it can appear confusing at first due to the overlapping bones. Regardless, both radiographs must be evaluated together. As always, we are tracing each individual bone, looking for obvious breaks in the cortex before then looking for uniformity of the joint spaces; abnormally widened spaces are often indicative of ligamentous injury; however, abnormally narrow spaces are often the result of radiographic projection rather than injury. It is often helpful to sit back from the image and see it in its entirety and a close-up view.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Jeremy Jones, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 37947

Recommended questions to ask when looking at the carpal bones:

  • Is the scapho-lunate distance less than 2mm wide? – if NO, then suspect a tear of this ligament.
  • Is there a bony fragment lying posterior to the carpal bones? If YES, then suspect a triquetral fracture.
  • Is there a bone sitting in the cup of the lunate? If NO, think of carpal dislocation involving the lunate.

After the scaphoid bone, the triquetrum is the most commonly fractured bone in isolation, with the trapezoid bone being the least frequently fractured. Each will now get its moment to shine as we take a minute to go through them.

Triquetral

Triquestral
Triquetral bone

Triquetral fractures usually occur on the dorsal aspect of the bone and are often the result of perilunate fracture dislocation and fracture of the distal radius and ulna; they account for about 20% of all carpal fractures and are regularly missed.  These may occur by means of impingement from the ulnar styloid, shear forces or avulsion from strong ligamentous attachments. The usual mechanism is a FOOSH whilst in ulnar deviation and, less commonly, a direct blow to the dorsum of the hand. It is best seen on a lateral projection where the avulsed flake of bone may be seen lying posteriorly to the triquetrum – look for the pooping duck sign on the image.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Maulik S Patel, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 16046
Case courtesy of Dr Matt Skalski, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 57109

Hamate

The hamate

Hamate fractures are rare, only accounting for approximately 2% of carpal fractures, potentially due to underreporting. They generally don’t happen in isolation, often associated with dorsal fracture dislocation of 4th and 5th carpometacarpal (CMC) joints, ulnar nerve injury and flexor tendon rupture, especially of 4th and 5th fingers. Common mechanisms are from blunt trauma, e.g. fist punch, falls and through impact from racquet sports.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Andrew Murphy, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 46110

Capitate

Capitate

Like hamate fractures, capitate fractures are also frequent injuries which seldom occur in isolation. A capitate fracture is uncommon, accounting for approximately 1.3% of carpal fractures and can be associated with a scaphoid fracture. It is uncommon to have a combined capitate-hamate fracture. The primary mechanism is a FOOSH with the wrist in hyperextension. Injury can result in ‘scaphoid capitate’ syndrome (1-2% incidence) where the capitate actually rotates by 180o – this latter presentation will need open reduction.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Bahman Rasuli, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 65954

Lunate

Lunate

Lunate fractures account for about 1% of carpal fractures and, like its predecessors, rarely occur independently. They are associated with injuries to the distal radius, carpus or metacarpals. Subluxations/dislocations of the carpus are most commonly centred around the lunate bone.

The key to their detection is the apple, cup, saucer analogythe cup of the lunate should never be empty – the distal radius, lunate and capitate articulate with each other in a straight line on the lateral radiograph, so when examining the image, if the capitate (apple) is not sitting in the cup of the lunate on the saucer of the radius then injury is present. Failure to recognise this anatomy means that dislocations are often overlooked.

When a scapholunate ligament injury has occurred, a missed diagnosis can lead to chronic pain around the joint due to its instability. In the younger population, surgery will be considered to restore full function and relieve pain.

Normal capitate – lunate – radius alignment. Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Jeremy Jones, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 37947
Perilunate dislocation. Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Ian Bickle, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 46714
Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 70427

More commonly, injury can occur at the scaphoid-lunate ligament – on x-ray, expect to see a widened joint space, which is often referred to as the “Terry Thomas” or “Madonna” sign (named for the gap between the front teeth) demonstrating such injury. While conservative management may often be trialled, surgical reconstruction can be needed.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Ian Bickle, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 46695

Trapezium

Trapezium

Trapezium fractures comprise between 3% and 5% of all carpal fractures and <1% of all hand injuries; they can occur in isolation or in combination with another carpal bone, e.g. fracture of the 1st metacarpal base and/or subluxation or dislocation of the 1st carpometacarpal (CMC) joint although this is extremely rare. They are often the result of high-energy trauma, usually involving axial loading force. Isolated trapezium fractures can be easily missed on X-rays due to the overlying bones, particularly on AP view.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Amanda Er, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 74739

Pisiform

Pisiform

Pisiform fractures account for 0.2% of all carpal fractures, and of those, half are in association with other carpal injuries; rarely, it may dislocate without fracture and displace radially. Its rarity is attributed to the sturdy ligaments that encase it.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Garth Kruger, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 29263

Trapezoid

Trapezoid bone

Trapezoid fractures are incredibly rare, with only about 10 cases reported in the literature. Their anatomic location and stable articulation with the 2nd metacarpal, together with their strong ligamentous attachments to neighbouring carpal bones, are thought to be responsible for the low incidence of fracture.

Image adapted from a case courtesy of Dr Bruno Di Muzio, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 46412

How do we manage these carpal bone injuries?

Inevitably, there will be some local differences, but the general principles are:

  • Closed manipulation can prove difficult and often unsuccessful, so an orthopaedic review is required if displacement exists.
  • If no displacement and no concern about ligamentous injury, then conservative management is often indicated. There is frequently no requirement to formally immobilise so analgesia may be the only treatment. 
  • If carpal subluxation is suspected, always refer to the orthopaedic team for specialist evaluation. If you are unsure, the literature discusses obtaining a radiograph of the uninjured hand to use as a comparison – this is not always a well-received request, so do consider utilising your local reporting radiologist, and if unavailable or in doubt, then refer for follow-up.

The take home

We need to remember that carpal fractures, dislocations and ligamentous injuries do occur in children, albeit rarely. We need the ability to recognise the ‘normal’ to pick out the ‘abnormal’.

As with all injuries, the diagnosis should be mainly clinical, with the x-ray being our confirmation.

As cannot be said enough, if it presents like a fracture, or considerations of acute injury like swelling and pain inhibit your ability to confidently exclude it, then treat it as such and refer onwards to the specialists that can!

References

Armstrong M and Oyinkansola Adeogun BS (2009). Tendon injuries in the Pediatric Hand. The Journal of Craniofacial Injury. 20(4) : 1005-1010.

El-Feky M and Weerakkody Y (a). Trapezium fracture, accessed from https://radiopaedia.org/articles/trapezium-fracture?lang=gb accessed on 30/06/2020.

El-Feky M and Weerakkody Y (b). Pisiform fracture accessed from https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pisiform-fracture?lang=gb accessed on 30/06/2020.

Filho, R. L. R. et al. (2020). Capitate and Hamate Fracture. Case Study. Ortopedia, traumatologia, rehabilitacja. 22(2), pp. 143–149. doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.1185.

Foley K and Patel S (2012). Fractures of the scaphoid, capitate and triquetrum in a child: a case report. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery. 20(1): pp 103-104.

Hacking C and Knipe H (). Carpometacarpal joint dislocation accessed from https://radiopaedia.org/articles/carpometacarpal-joint-dislocation?lang=gb accessed on 12/06/2020

Hacking C and Radswiki et al. Triquetral Fracture. Accessed from https://radiopaedia.org/articles/triquetral-fracture?lang=gb accessed on 30/06/2020.

Kam MLW, Sreedharan S, Teoh LC and Chew WYC (2011) ‘Severe Isolated Trapezoid Fracture:: A Case Report’, Hand Surgery, 16(2), pp. 185–187. doi: 10.1142/S0218810411005321.

Kose, O., Keskinbora, M. and Guler, F. (2015) ‘Carpometacarpal dislocation of the thumb associated with fracture of the trapezium’, Journal of orthopaedics and traumatology : official journal of the Italian Society of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, 16(2), pp. 161–165. doi: 10.1007/s10195-014-0288-9.

Maloney E, Zbojniewicz A, Nguyen J, Luo Y and Thapa M (2018). Anatomy and injuries of the paediatric wrist: beyond the basics. Pediatric Radiology. 48 : pp764-782.

Murphy A and Knipe H. Hamate fractures. Accessed from https://radiopaedia.org/articles/hook-of-hamate-fracture?lang=gb accessed on 30/06/2020.

Raghupathi AK, Kumar P (2014). Nonscaphoid Carpal Injuries – Incidence and associated injuries. Journal of Orthopaedics. II: 91-95.

Rasoli, S., Ricks, M. and Packer, G. (2012) ‘Isolated displaced non-union of a triquetral body fracture: a case report’, Journal of medical case reports, 6, p. 54. doi: 10.1186/1752-1947-6-54.

Shah S, Rochette L and Smith G (2012). Epidemiology of pediatric hand injuries presenting to United States emergency departments, 1990-2009. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care. 72(6) : pp 1688-1694.

Wahba G and Cheung K (2018). Paediatric hand injuries: clinical review. Canadian Family Physician. 64: pp 803-810.

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